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      <journal-id journal-id-type="ojs">IE</journal-id>
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          <trans-title>STROITEL'NYE I DOROZHNYE MASHINY</trans-title>
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      <issn pub-type="ppub">0039-2391</issn>
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      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">396</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other" specific-use="edn">NMSRDI</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.25726/k1582-1947-4677-v</article-id>
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          <subject>DESIGN AND MODELING</subject>
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        <article-title xml:lang="ru">&#x41C;&#x430;&#x442;&#x435;&#x43C;&#x430;&#x442;&#x438;&#x447;&#x435;&#x441;&#x43A;&#x43E;&#x435; &#x43C;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x435;&#x43B;&#x438;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x432;&#x430;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x435; &#x440;&#x430;&#x441;&#x43F;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x441;&#x442;&#x440;&#x430;&#x43D;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x44F; &#x438; &#x442;&#x443;&#x448;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x44F; &#x43B;&#x435;&#x441;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x433;&#x43E; &#x43F;&#x43E;&#x436;&#x430;&#x440;&#x430; &#x432;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x43E;&#x439; &#x432; &#x442;&#x440;&#x435;&#x445;&#x44A;&#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x43C; &#x43B;&#x435;&#x441;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x43C; &#x43C;&#x430;&#x441;&#x441;&#x438;&#x432;&#x435;</article-title>
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          <trans-title>Mathematical modeling of wildfire spread and water suppression in a three-tier forest stand</trans-title>
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              <surname>Kataeva</surname>
              <given-names>Liliya Yu.</given-names>
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      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="epub">
        <day>30</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2026</year>
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      <volume>70</volume>
      <issue>9</issue>
      <fpage>104</fpage>
      <lpage>116</lpage>
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        <date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2026-07-01">
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          <month>07</month>
          <year>2026</year>
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        <copyright-statement xml:lang="en">&#xA9; 2026 STROITEL'NYE I DOROZHNYE MASHINY. All rights reserved.</copyright-statement>
        <copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
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&#x441;&#x432;&#x43E;&#x431;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x43D;&#x430;&#x44F; &#x432;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x430; &#x2013; &#x432;&#x435;&#x43B;&#x438;&#x447;&#x438;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x439; &#x3C6;&#x2084;, &#x438;&#x441;&#x442;&#x43E;&#x447;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x43A;&#x43E;&#x43C; f(x,z,t) &#x438; &#x441;&#x43A;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x441;&#x442;&#x44C;&#x44E; &#x43A;&#x438;&#x43F;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x44F; R&#x2084;. &#x420;&#x430;&#x441;&#x441;&#x43C;&#x43E;&#x442;&#x440;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x430; &#x441;&#x442;&#x440;&#x443;&#x43A;&#x442;&#x443;&#x440;&#x430;, &#x432;&#x43A;&#x43B;&#x44E;&#x447;&#x430;&#x44E;&#x449;&#x430;&#x44F; &#x43D;&#x438;&#x436;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x439; &#x433;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x44E;&#x447;&#x438;&#x439; &#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441; &#x432;&#x44B;&#x441;&#x43E;&#x442;&#x43E;&#x439; 4 &#x43C;, &#x43C;&#x435;&#x436;&#x44A;&#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441;&#x43D;&#x44B;&#x439; &#x43D;&#x435;&#x433;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x44E;&#x447;&#x438;&#x439; &#x440;&#x430;&#x437;&#x440;&#x44B;&#x432; &#x432;&#x44B;&#x441;&#x43E;&#x442;&#x43E;&#x439; 1 &#x43C; &#x438; &#x432;&#x435;&#x440;&#x445;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x439; &#x433;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x44E;&#x447;&#x438;&#x439; &#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441; &#x432;&#x44B;&#x441;&#x43E;&#x442;&#x43E;&#x439; 5 &#x43C;. &#x412;&#x44B;&#x43F;&#x43E;&#x43B;&#x43D;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x43E; &#x438;&#x43D;&#x442;&#x435;&#x433;&#x440;&#x430;&#x43B;&#x44C;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x435; &#x43E;&#x441;&#x440;&#x435;&#x434;&#x43D;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x435; &#x434;&#x432;&#x443;&#x43C;&#x435;&#x440;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x439; &#x43C;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x435;&#x43B;&#x438; &#x43F;&#x43E; &#x432;&#x44B;&#x441;&#x43E;&#x442;&#x435; &#x43A;&#x430;&#x436;&#x434;&#x43E;&#x433;&#x43E; &#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441;&#x430; &#x441; &#x441;&#x43E;&#x445;&#x440;&#x430;&#x43D;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x435;&#x43C; &#x43C;&#x435;&#x436;&#x44A;&#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441;&#x43D;&#x44B;&#x445; &#x43F;&#x43E;&#x442;&#x43E;&#x43A;&#x43E;&#x432; &#x442;&#x435;&#x43F;&#x43B;&#x430;. &#x41F;&#x43E;&#x43A;&#x430;&#x437;&#x430;&#x43D;&#x43E;, &#x447;&#x442;&#x43E; &#x441;&#x440;&#x435;&#x434;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x439; &#x441;&#x43B;&#x43E;&#x439; &#x43D;&#x435; &#x444;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x43C;&#x438;&#x440;&#x443;&#x435;&#x442; &#x441;&#x430;&#x43C;&#x43E;&#x441;&#x442;&#x43E;&#x44F;&#x442;&#x435;&#x43B;&#x44C;&#x43D;&#x443;&#x44E; &#x432;&#x43E;&#x43B;&#x43D;&#x443; &#x433;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x44F;, &#x430; &#x44F;&#x432;&#x43B;&#x44F;&#x435;&#x442;&#x441;&#x44F; &#x442;&#x435;&#x43F;&#x43B;&#x43E;&#x432;&#x44B;&#x43C; &#x43C;&#x43E;&#x441;&#x442;&#x43E;&#x43C; &#x43C;&#x435;&#x436;&#x434;&#x443; &#x43D;&#x438;&#x436;&#x43D;&#x435;&#x439; &#x438; &#x432;&#x435;&#x440;&#x445;&#x43D;&#x435;&#x439; &#x440;&#x435;&#x430;&#x43A;&#x446;&#x438;&#x43E;&#x43D;&#x43D;&#x44B;&#x43C;&#x438; &#x437;&#x43E;&#x43D;&#x430;&#x43C;&#x438;. &#x414;&#x43B;&#x44F; &#x433;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x44E;&#x447;&#x438;&#x445; &#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441;&#x43E;&#x432; &#x43F;&#x43E;&#x43B;&#x443;&#x447;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x43E; &#x430;&#x43D;&#x430;&#x43B;&#x438;&#x442;&#x438;&#x447;&#x435;&#x441;&#x43A;&#x43E;&#x435; &#x431;&#x435;&#x433;&#x443;&#x449;&#x435;&#x435; &#x432;&#x43E;&#x43B;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x432;&#x43E;&#x435; &#x440;&#x435;&#x448;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x435; &#x438; &#x443;&#x441;&#x43B;&#x43E;&#x432;&#x438;&#x435; &#x442;&#x443;&#x448;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x44F; &#x447;&#x435;&#x440;&#x435;&#x437; &#x43A;&#x440;&#x438;&#x442;&#x438;&#x447;&#x435;&#x441;&#x43A;&#x443;&#x44E; &#x441;&#x43A;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x441;&#x442;&#x44C; &#x43A;&#x438;&#x43F;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x44F; &#x432;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x44B;. &#x414;&#x43E;&#x43A;&#x430;&#x437;&#x430;&#x43D;&#x43E;, &#x447;&#x442;&#x43E; &#x43F;&#x440;&#x438; &#x43E;&#x434;&#x438;&#x43D;&#x430;&#x43A;&#x43E;&#x432;&#x44B;&#x445; &#x441;&#x432;&#x43E;&#x439;&#x441;&#x442;&#x432;&#x430;&#x445; &#x432;&#x441;&#x435;&#x445; &#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441;&#x43E;&#x432; &#x441;&#x438;&#x441;&#x442;&#x435;&#x43C;&#x430; &#x432;&#x44B;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x436;&#x434;&#x430;&#x435;&#x442;&#x441;&#x44F; &#x432; &#x438;&#x437;&#x432;&#x435;&#x441;&#x442;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x435; &#x440;&#x435;&#x448;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x435; &#x434;&#x43B;&#x44F; &#x43E;&#x434;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x439; &#x432;&#x43E;&#x43B;&#x43D;&#x44B; &#x433;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x44F; &#x432; &#x43F;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x438;&#x441;&#x442;&#x43E;&#x43C; &#x441;&#x43B;&#x43E;&#x435;. &#x41F;&#x43E; &#x447;&#x438;&#x441;&#x43B;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x43D;&#x44B;&#x43C; &#x43F;&#x43E;&#x43B;&#x44F;&#x43C; &#x431;&#x435;&#x437; &#x442;&#x443;&#x448;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x44F; &#x43E;&#x43F;&#x440;&#x435;&#x434;&#x435;&#x43B;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x44B; &#x441;&#x43A;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x441;&#x442;&#x438; &#x440;&#x430;&#x441;&#x43F;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x441;&#x442;&#x440;&#x430;&#x43D;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x44F; &#x444;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x43D;&#x442;&#x430;: 3,10 &#x43C;/&#x441; &#x434;&#x43B;&#x44F; &#x441;&#x43F;&#x43B;&#x43E;&#x448;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x433;&#x43E; &#x43C;&#x430;&#x441;&#x441;&#x438;&#x432;&#x430; &#x438; 3,41 &#x43C;/&#x441; &#x434;&#x43B;&#x44F; &#x442;&#x440;&#x435;&#x445;&#x44A;&#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x433;&#x43E; &#x43C;&#x430;&#x441;&#x441;&#x438;&#x432;&#x430;. &#x420;&#x43E;&#x441;&#x442; &#x441;&#x43A;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x441;&#x442;&#x438; &#x43D;&#x430; 10% &#x432; &#x442;&#x440;&#x435;&#x445;&#x44A;&#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x43C; &#x441;&#x43B;&#x443;&#x447;&#x430;&#x435; &#x43E;&#x431;&#x443;&#x441;&#x43B;&#x43E;&#x432;&#x43B;&#x435;&#x43D; &#x432;&#x435;&#x442;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x432;&#x44B;&#x43C; &#x441;&#x43C;&#x435;&#x449;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x435;&#x43C; &#x432;&#x435;&#x440;&#x445;&#x43D;&#x435;&#x439; &#x432;&#x44B;&#x441;&#x43E;&#x43A;&#x43E;&#x442;&#x435;&#x43C;&#x43F;&#x435;&#x440;&#x430;&#x442;&#x443;&#x440;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x439; &#x437;&#x43E;&#x43D;&#x44B;, &#x438;&#x441;&#x43A;&#x440;&#x438;&#x432;&#x43B;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x435;&#x43C; &#x444;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x43D;&#x442;&#x430; &#x432; &#x43C;&#x435;&#x436;&#x44A;&#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x43C; &#x440;&#x430;&#x437;&#x440;&#x44B;&#x432;&#x435; &#x438; &#x443;&#x441;&#x438;&#x43B;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x435;&#x43C; &#x43F;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x433;&#x440;&#x435;&#x432;&#x430; &#x432;&#x435;&#x440;&#x445;&#x43D;&#x435;&#x433;&#x43E; &#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441;&#x430;. &#x410;&#x43D;&#x430;&#x43B;&#x438;&#x442;&#x438;&#x447;&#x435;&#x441;&#x43A;&#x430;&#x44F; &#x43C;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x435;&#x43B;&#x44C; &#x43F;&#x43E;&#x43A;&#x430;&#x437;&#x44B;&#x432;&#x430;&#x435;&#x442;, &#x447;&#x442;&#x43E; &#x43F;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x430;&#x447;&#x430; &#x432;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x44B; &#x432; &#x43D;&#x438;&#x436;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x439; &#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441; &#x43F;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x430;&#x432;&#x43B;&#x44F;&#x435;&#x442; &#x43F;&#x440;&#x438;&#x437;&#x435;&#x43C;&#x43D;&#x443;&#x44E; &#x432;&#x43E;&#x43B;&#x43D;&#x443;, &#x43D;&#x43E; &#x43C;&#x43E;&#x436;&#x435;&#x442; &#x43D;&#x435; &#x440;&#x430;&#x437;&#x440;&#x443;&#x448;&#x438;&#x442;&#x44C; &#x442;&#x435;&#x43F;&#x43B;&#x43E;&#x432;&#x443;&#x44E; &#x441;&#x432;&#x44F;&#x437;&#x44C; &#x441; &#x432;&#x435;&#x440;&#x445;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x43C; &#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441;&#x43E;&#x43C;; &#x43F;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x430;&#x447;&#x430; &#x432;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x44B; &#x432; &#x43C;&#x435;&#x436;&#x44A;&#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441;&#x43D;&#x44B;&#x439; &#x440;&#x430;&#x437;&#x440;&#x44B;&#x432; &#x43E;&#x441;&#x43B;&#x430;&#x431;&#x43B;&#x44F;&#x435;&#x442; &#x442;&#x435;&#x43F;&#x43B;&#x43E;&#x432;&#x43E;&#x439; &#x43C;&#x43E;&#x441;&#x442;; &#x43F;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x430;&#x447;&#x430; &#x432;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x44B; &#x432; &#x432;&#x435;&#x440;&#x445;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x439; &#x44F;&#x440;&#x443;&#x441; &#x441;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x436;&#x430;&#x435;&#x442; &#x442;&#x435;&#x43C;&#x43F;&#x435;&#x440;&#x430;&#x442;&#x443;&#x440;&#x443; &#x43A;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x432;&#x43E;&#x439; &#x437;&#x43E;&#x43D;&#x44B;, &#x43D;&#x43E; &#x43E;&#x441;&#x442;&#x430;&#x432;&#x43B;&#x44F;&#x435;&#x442; &#x430;&#x43A;&#x442;&#x438;&#x432;&#x43D;&#x44B;&#x43C; &#x43D;&#x438;&#x436;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x439; &#x438;&#x441;&#x442;&#x43E;&#x447;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x43A; &#x43F;&#x438;&#x440;&#x43E;&#x43B;&#x438;&#x437;&#x430;. &#x41F;&#x43E;&#x43B;&#x443;&#x447;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x43D;&#x44B;&#x435; &#x440;&#x435;&#x437;&#x443;&#x43B;&#x44C;&#x442;&#x430;&#x442;&#x44B; &#x43E;&#x431;&#x43E;&#x441;&#x43D;&#x43E;&#x432;&#x44B;&#x432;&#x430;&#x44E;&#x442; &#x43D;&#x435;&#x43E;&#x431;&#x445;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x438;&#x43C;&#x43E;&#x441;&#x442;&#x44C; &#x443;&#x447;&#x438;&#x442;&#x44B;&#x432;&#x430;&#x442;&#x44C; &#x432;&#x44B;&#x441;&#x43E;&#x442;&#x443; &#x43F;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x430;&#x447;&#x438; &#x432;&#x43E;&#x434;&#x44B; &#x438; &#x432;&#x435;&#x440;&#x442;&#x438;&#x43A;&#x430;&#x43B;&#x44C;&#x43D;&#x443;&#x44E; &#x441;&#x442;&#x440;&#x443;&#x43A;&#x442;&#x443;&#x440;&#x443; &#x43B;&#x435;&#x441;&#x430; &#x43F;&#x440;&#x438; &#x432;&#x44B;&#x431;&#x43E;&#x440;&#x435; &#x441;&#x446;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x430;&#x440;&#x438;&#x44F; &#x442;&#x443;&#x448;&#x435;&#x43D;&#x438;&#x44F;.</p>
      </abstract>
      <trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>A physical-mathematical and analytical model is presented for the spread and water suppression of a forest fire in a three-tier forest stand. The model is based on the mechanics of reacting multiphase media, where the gas phase is described by the density &#x3C1;&#x2085; and mass concentrations C&#x3B1;, the condensed phase by the volume fractions &#x3C6;&#x1D62;, and free water by &#x3C6;&#x2084;, the source term f(x,z,t), and the boiling rate R&#x2084;. The considered vertical structure consists of a 4 m lower combustible tier, a 1 m non-combustible inter-tier gap, and a 5 m upper combustible tier. Integral height averaging of the two-dimensional model is performed for each tier, while retaining inter-tier heat fluxes. It is shown that the middle layer does not form an independent combustion wave, but acts as a thermal bridge between the lower and upper reaction zones. For the combustible tiers, an analytical travelling-wave solution is obtained, together with a suppression condition expressed through the critical boiling rate of water. It is proved that, when all three tiers have identical properties, the system degenerates into the known solution for a homogeneous combustion wave in a porous layer. Numerical fields without suppression give fire-front propagation velocities of 3.10 m/s for the continuous forest stand and 3.41 m/s for the three-tier stand. The 10% increase in the three-tier case is caused by wind-driven displacement of the upper high-temperature zone, bending of the front in the inter-tier gap, and enhanced heating of the upper tier. The analytical model shows that water supply to the lower tier suppresses the near-ground wave, but may fail to destroy thermal coupling with the upper tier; water supply to the inter-tier gap weakens the thermal bridge; water supply to the upper tier lowers the crown-zone temperature, but leaves the lower pyrolysis source active. The results justify the need to account for water-supply height and vertical forest structure when selecting a suppression strategy.</p>
      </trans-abstract>
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        <kwd>wildfire</kwd>
        <kwd>three-tier forest</kwd>
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        <kwd>combustion wave</kwd>
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        <funding-statement xml:lang="en">The authors did not declare any external funding for this research.</funding-statement>
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</article>
